Animal Facts

At over a meter long, the RED AND WHITE GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL is...

Mon, 07 May 2012 23:49:00 +0700

At over a meter long, the RED AND WHITE GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL is the largest of its kind [1,2]. Endemic to central and southern China, they inhabit dense hillside forests in mountainous terrain. They spend their days sleeping, emerging after sundown to forage in the trees. Their diet consists primarily of nuts and fruits, but also includes leafy vegetation as well as some insects and their larvae. Red and white giants move between trees by gliding, typically over distances of about 10-20 meters. Much longer glides however - up to about 400 meters longer - have been observed when they’re traveling downhill [2].

Gliding is accomplished with the help of a parachute-like membrane called a patagium. Before taking off, flying squirrels bob and rotate their heads to gauge the route, and then leap into the air, spreading their patagia between cartilaginous spurs on their wrists and ankles. Small adjustments to these spurs give them some control over their speed and direction. Their flattened tails also aid in steering. As their destination nears, they pull upright, prepare their padded feet to cushion the shock of impact, and ready their sharp claws to grip the bark (VIDEO) [3]. Gliding is an efficient way to travel but maneuverability in the air is limited. By keeping nocturnal habits, flying squirrels avoid predation by more skilled fliers, such as hawks and eagles. Owls however, still pose a threat.

The are 44 species of flying squirrel worldwide [3]. The fact that most of them live in Asia has led to the hypothesis that they originated there. Only two species are found in the Americas: the Northern flying squirrel lives in deciduous and mixed woods all across Canada as well as down into the Pacific Northwest and Seirra Nevada; the Southern flying squirrel (VIDEO) lives in the Eastern half of North America from southern Canada down to Florida, with isolated pockets in Central America [4].

Gliding has evolved independently in a variety of arboreal animals. Among mammals, there are the marsupial gliding possums of Australia, the colugos of SE Asia, and the scaly-tailed flying squirrels of Africa [5]. Each group glides in a slightly different way, with their patagia being controlled by different morphological adaptations. In some marsupial gliders for example, the patagium attaches at the elbows, whereas in colugos it extends into webbed digits [5]. The fact that all flying squirrels are “wrist gliders” with shared wrist anatomy suggests that they are all descended from a common ancestor, presumably some sort of primitive tree squirrel [5]. Non-mammalian arboreal gliders include frogs, geckos, snakes, lizards (VIDEO), and even ants (VIDEO).

References. [1] Dan Doucette on Project Noah. [2] Smith and Xie (2008) A Guide to the Mammals of China. [3] Wikipedia entry: Flying Squirrel. [4] flyingsquirrels.com, created by Steve Patterson of Hummingbird Services. [5] Thorington, R.W. (1984). Flying squirrels are monophyletic. Science, 255(4666):1048-1050.

Photo Credits. (1) Burrard-Lucas Photography. (2) Tom Rivest of Great Bear Nature Tours. (3) Dan Doucette. (4) Phil Telfer (5) Coke and Som Smith. (6) Burrard-Lucas Photograpy.

Video Credit. (1) Dan Doucette (2012). (2) The Life of Mammals, episode 8, Life in the Trees(2002). Produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Discovery Channel.

The largest WALRUS weigh over 3500 pounds and have tusks over 3...

Mon, 05 Dec 2011 22:35:00 +0700

The largest WALRUS weigh over 3500 pounds and have tusks over 3 feet long. They are year round residents of the Arctic, moving north in the summer to forage in rich sea beds exposed by the retreating ice, and returning south in the winter as the advancing ice blocks access to this resource.

Although walrus feed on a diversity of marine organisms, they are particularly suited to a diet of clams. Efficient foraging and extraction techniques allow them to consume as many as 4000 clams in a single feeding session. Walrus search for clams by swimming along the sea floor pushing their whiskers through the mud (VIDEO). Each whisker is attached to muscle and richly supplied with blood and nerves, yielding a mustache capable of very fine tactile discrimination. Upon discovering a clam, the walrus seals its lips around the shell and rapidly withdraws its tongue into a uniquely vaulted palate, creating a vacuum and sucking the foot and fleshy siphon of the clam out of its shell.

The body of a walrus is largely defined by a 6 inch layer of blubber. In addition to insulation, blubber provides a hydrodynamic body shape, enveloping most of their shortened limb bones. Only the flattened phalanges of their fully webbed hands and feet extend beyond the surface of the blubber layer. Walrus tusks (elongated canines) are possessed by both sexes and used to maintain breathing holes in the ice and to help haul their enormous bodies out of the water. Tusks are also used aggressively to maintain territory, and defensively when under attack from a predator.

Due to their massive size and huge tusks, walrus have few natural predators. Polar bears will attack walrus, but it is usually an act of desperation. The ensuing battles are often long and exhausting. Even an injured walrus remains formidable and a polar bear will often give up the fight after doing significant damage (VIDEO). Orcas may also attack walrus, but are more likely to seek out less dangerous prey.

Walruses and seals are Pinnipeds, a group of highly carnivorous mammals united by their common adaptations to life in the water. Anatomical and genetic evidence suggests that all pinnipeds are descended from a terrestrial carnivore that lived some 23 million years ago. The earliest fossil pinniped, Puijila darwini, had heavy limbs, indicative of upright movement on land, but flattened phalanges, suggesting webbed hands and feet. The reference to Charles Darwin (1872) is in honor of his contention that “a strictly terrestrial animal, by occasionally hunting for food in shallow water, then in streams or lakes, might at last be converted into an animal so thoroughly aquatic as to brave the open ocean” (p. 180).

Sources. (1) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus. (2) Ben Kitchen & Claire Hamilton. (3) Seaworld. (4) University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. (5) Rybczynski, Dawson, and Tedford 2009. (6) Darwin, C. (1872). The Origin of Species (6th ed.). London: John Murray. (Original work published 1859).

Photo Credits. (1) Burrard-Lucas Photograpy. (2) ? (3) Mirror image of photo 2. Skier Darwin added in photoshop; scaled to 5’11” assuming the visible part of the Walrus’s left tusk is 2 feet long. (4) Screenshot from Nature’s Great Events, episode 1, The Great Melt (2009), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, Discovery Channel, and Wanda Films. (5) ? (6) screenshot from Nature’s Great Events, episode 1, The Great Melt (2009), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, Discovery Channel, and Wanda Films. (7) ? (8) ? (9) Richard Lydekker.

Video Credit. (1) Nature’s Great Events, episode 1, The Great Melt (2009), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, Discovery Channel, and Wanda Films. (2) Planet Earth, episode 6, Ice Worlds. produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, Discovery Channel, NHK, and the CBC.

The RED FOX is the largest of the foxes and the most...

Mon, 07 Nov 2011 22:38:20 +0700

The RED FOX is the largest of the foxes and the most geographically spread member of the order Carnivora. They are found across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to Central America, North Africa, and the steppes of Asia. Capable of eating just about anything, from small animals to fruits and garbage, they thrive in rural and urban areas.

Red foxes move with agility and stealth, slipping in and out of the shadows for cover but also capable of running at speeds in excess of 30 mph and bounding over fences 2 meters tall. Their sense of hearing is so sharp that they can detect the flight of a bird 250 meters away and locate it to within a single degree. In this VIDEO, a red fox uses its keen auditory sense to capture prey hidden beneath the snow.

Red foxes are social animals, living in family groups that share a joint territory. They communicate using a mixture of vocalizations and body language. Typical sounds include barks, whines, shrieks, coughs, and throat rattles. Body language comprises different postures as well as movements of the ears and tail (markings such as white-tipped tails emphasize certain gestures). Examples include: playful foxes perking up their ears and rising on their hind legs; fearful foxes pointing their ears backwards and crouching with their tails lashing back and forth; and boastful foxes turning their ears outward and extending their tails horizontally with the tips turned upward.

Despite the name, red foxes exhibit various colorations, including white, black, and silver. The fox genus, Vulpes, belongs to the dog family Canidae. Compared to other canines, foxes are generally lighter and have narrower faces with cat-like vertical pupils. There are twelve different species of fox in the world today, they are the arctic fox, the Bengal fox, Blanford’s fox, the cape fox, the corsac fox, the fennec fox, the kit fox, the pale fox, the red fox, Rüppel’s fox, the swift fox, and the Tibetan sand fox.

Sources. (1) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_fox. (2) State of Connecticut Environmental Protection. (3) wildlifeonline. (4) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox.

Photo Credits. (1) Horst Schillinger. (2) Dan Walters. (3) ? (4) ? (5) ? (6) Ron Niebrugge.

Video Credits. (1) Yellowstone, episode 1, Winter (2009), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Animal Planet. (2,3) The Life of Mammals, episode 5, Meat Eaters (2002), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Discovery Channel. (4) Planet Earth, episode 7, Great plains (2006), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, Discovery Channel, NHK, and CBC.

INDRI are strict tree-dwellers, descending to the ground only...

Tue, 11 Oct 2011 12:51:00 +0700

INDRI are strict tree-dwellers, descending to the ground only rarely to supplement their herbivorous diets with mineral rich soil. They live in small family groups and regularly announce their presence with loud wailing calls. (VIDEO). Like all lemurs, they are only found on the island of Madagascar.

Indri are the largest lemurs alive today, measuring almost 4 feet long at full extension. Much of their size comes from long powerful legs, which they use to launch themselves from tree to tree in leaps of up to 30 feet (demonstrated here by a related but smaller lemur species). Unlike monkeys, which leap hands-first, indri leap feet-first and hold their bodies upright as they move through the air.

Despite their dog-like faces, indri are primates. Our last common ancestor lived in Africa and is thought to have been a small arboreal creature with forward facing eyes, dextrous hands and feet, and long flexible limbs. Some 60 million years ago, a small group of these early primates (the ancestors of all lemurs) were swept to sea. Clinging to mats of floating vegetation they managed to survive long enough for the currents to carry them to Madagascar.

These castaways were the first mammals to reach Madagascar. Over time, their descendants diversified, adapting to fill the many open niches occupied by rodents and other primates on the mainland. Today there are approximately 100 lemur species. They range in size from tiny mouse lemurs (the smallest of which could sit in the palm of your hand) to indri. Prior to the arrival of humans in Madagascar some 2000 years ago, there were lemurs larger than silverback gorillas (e.g. picture 6, archaeoindris).

In this VIDEO, an indri accustomed to people in Andasibe-Mantadia National Park in Madagascar takes leaves from a familiar forest ranger, and after some time, from Attenborough as well.

Sources. The Encyclopedia of Animals A Complete Visual Guide (2008) George McKay (Editor)

David Attenborough in The life of Mammals, episode 8, Life in the Trees (2002)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indri

http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=36

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur

Photo Credits. (1) Nick Gartbutt (2) ? (3) Inaki Relanzon (4) Bone Clones Osteological Reproductions (5) Rhett Butler (6) Smokeybjb, based on life restoration by Stephen Nash in Lemurs of Madagascar, 3rd edition (2010).

Video Credit. (1) Madagascar, episode 1, Island of Marvels (2011), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Animal Planet. (2) The Life of Mammals, episode 8, Life in the Trees (2002). (3) Attenborough’s Egg Hunt, (2011), produced by the BBC Natural History Unit.

The CHEETAH is the fastest thing on four legs. They are capable...

Mon, 19 Sep 2011 17:00:00 +0700

The CHEETAH is the fastest thing on four legs. They are capable of reaching speeds between 65 and 70 mph, and accelerating from 0 to 60 in 3 seconds. They are easily distinguished from other spotted cats, such as leopards, by the black “tear marks” that run from the corners of their eyes to their mouths.

A number of adaptations help the cheetah achieve its incredible speed. Their bodies are anchored by highly flexible spines which stretch like springs to increase their stride, and then snap back to retract their legs for the next bound. Their muscles are rich in fast twitch fibers specialized to deliver speed and power. Their hearts, lungs, and nostrils are enlarged to enhance oxygen circulation. Their claws never fully retract and the pads of their feet are stiff and ridged to increase traction. Their tails are long and muscular to help balance in tight turns and flattened at the tips to help steer when their feet are off the ground. Finally, they are slim and lightweight, averaging between 100-125 pounds.

Like other cats cheetah are obligate carnivores, feeding primarily on gazelle, springbok, and impala. They hunt during the day, when larger predators that might steal their kills are less active. Prey are typically stalked to within 10-30 m, before starting a chase (VIDEO). Cheetah can only run at top speed for a short time without risking heat damage. If they fail to make a kill within a minute or so, they must stop to cool down. A mature cheetah captures prey in about 50% of chases.

The biological family of cats comprises 41 extant species divided into two subfamilies: tigers, lions, jaguars, and leopards (Patherinae), and cougars, cheetah, lynx, ocelots, and domestic cats (Felinae). Ancient cats first emerged about 25 million years ago during a time when Earth was transitioning from a largely tropical planet to more modern conditions with expansive grasslands and tropics confined to the equator. During this time, there was a third subfamily of cats, which included the well known saber-toothed variaties.

Sources. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah,

carnivoraforum.com/index.cgi?board=feline&action=print&thread=911,

http://www.helium.com/items/568948-the-cheetah-anatomy-built-for-speed?page=1 ,

www.cheetahspot.com,

Hildebrand M. (1959) Motions of the running cheetah and horse. Journal of Mammalogy. 40:4:481-495,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felidae,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligocene.

Photo Credits. 1. ? 2. Fourth Line Films 3. ? 4. ? 5. James Temple. 6 Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle Paris.

Video Credit. 1. Life of Mammals, Episode 5: Meat Eaters. BBC Natural History Unit

GLAUCUS ATLANTICUS is a specialist predator of siphonophores,...

Mon, 08 Aug 2011 22:42:00 +0700

GLAUCUS ATLANTICUS is a specialist predator of siphonophores, jellyfish-like creatures such as the Portuguese Man o’ War which float near the surface of the ocean and are often herded into large groups by the currents. G. Atlantici spend their lives floating amongst these aggregations, periodically gulping bubbles of gas into their stomachs to maintain buoyancy, and clinging to the surface tension with their muscular feet.

Siphonophores, like jellyfish, use venomous stinging cells (called nematocysts; VIDEO) to capture prey and defend themselves against predators. G. Atlanticus, however, is immune to nematocysts and consumes them without harm. The inside of their mouths and esophagi are lined with a hard cuticle (made of chitin) which acts to absorb the impact of discharging nematocysts and keep the underlying muscle tissue safe. Additional protection comes from specialized mucus that inhibits nematocyst discharge by interfering with the trigger mechanism.

G. Atlanticus’s domination of nematocysts does not stop at neutralization. Unfired nematocysts pass through the digestive system undamaged and eventually become incorporated into the body as fully functioning defensive weapons. Intestinal protuberances guide nematocysts to G. Atlanticus’s rayed appendages where they are absorbed into muscularized chambers at the tips. Here they are nourished and stored, ready to be squeezed out if their new body comes under attack. A lifetime of meals concentrates powerful nematocysts from dozens of individual siphonophores, making the sting of G. Atlanticus a very potent cocktail.

Glaucus Atlanticus is a nudibranch (or sea slug), a gastropod mollusk closely related to marine snails. They drift with the currents in tropical and temperate oceans throughout the world. Their bodies measure between 3-5cm in length and possess 3 pairs of appendages that fan out into rayed cerata. Small chemosensory tentacles (called rhinophores) located on either side of the mouth help them find food, and they feed by using a toothed tongue (called a radula) to scrap and tear flesh from prey. They are short lived, typically spending their entire lives within a particular cluster of siphonophores. Like other nudibranchs, G. Atlanticus is hemaphroditic, possessing both male and female reproductive organs. After mating, which is reciprocal, both slugs lay egg strings, often on the bodies of their victims to endow their offspring with nourishment.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucus_atlanticus

Valdes A, Orso A C (2004) Systematics of pelagic aeolid nudibranchs of the family glaucidae (mollusk, gastropod). Bulletin of Marine Science 75(3):381-389.

http://www.seaslugforum.net/find/glauatla

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolidia_papillosa#Defense

Greenwood P G (2009) Acquisition and use of nematocysts by cnidarian predators. Toxicon 54:1065:1070.

http://www.nudibranch.com.au/aboutnudibranchs.html.

Photo Credits. 1. Richard Ververs. 2. Paulhypnos. 3. Doubtful Guest. 4. DYimages. 5. ? 6. ? 7. Atlas Zoologique du Voyage de la corvette La Bonite. Paris, Arthus Bertrand, Editeur, 1841.

Video Credits. 1. Killer Jellyfish. Australian Natural History Unit.

In appearance, the GREAT GRAY OWL ranks among the largest...

Wed, 27 Jul 2011 21:14:00 +0700

In appearance, the GREAT GRAY OWL ranks among the largest raptors in the world. The biggest females measure up to 82cm in length with a wingspan of over 1.5m. Their apparent size, however, is deceptive. They are in fact, mostly feathers. Dense fluffy plumage and big heads hide bodies that weigh only 2-3 pounds, making them significantly smaller than other large owls such as the Great horned owl or Eurasian eagle owl.

Great grays are year-round residents of the dense coniferous forests that encircle the Northern Hemisphere. Most birds of prey in these forests must fly south for the winter to areas where lighter snow cover leave prey more accessible, but not great grays. They remain through the winter and thus gain uncontested access to local rodent populations. They use this time to bulk up, building reserves that will sustain them through the more competitive summer months.

The non-migratory lifestyle of the great gray owl is made possible by a hunting technique which allows them to feed on prey they cannot see. Voles spend the winter rummaging through hollowed out tunnels beneath the snow and great grays hunt them by sound alone. The owl sits on a high perch and scans its surroundings, listening for the rustle of moving prey. Once a target is identified, they swoop silently toward it, keeping their heads trained on its position - if the sound moves, they adjust course. Just before impact they thrust their feet forward and spread their talons, crashing through the snow and snatching at the source. If successful, they wriggle out with catch in hand and fly off to a safe spot to eat (VIDEO).

Great gray owls have excellent hearing. Large facial discs (called the “ruff”) collect and funnel sound towards the ears, which are located next to the eyes on either side of the skull. The shape of the ruff can be adjusted by special muscles to further focus sound and pinpoint targets (VIDEO). Great grays are able to successfully hunt prey buried under as much as 2 feet of snow.

Sources. http://www.owlpages.com/owls.php?genus=Strix&species=nebulosa ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Grey_Owl ,

http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Great_Gray_Owl/lifehistory ,

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0502/feature4/index.html ,

http://www.owlpages.com/articles.php?section=Owl+Physiology&title=Hearing ,

http://www.nature.org/animals/birds/animals/grayowl.html.

Photo Credits. 1. Chris Dodds. 2. Scott Linstead. 3. Chris Dodds. 4. Chris Dodds. 5. Sven Zacek. 6. Sven Zacek. 7. Jody Melanson. 8. Pierre Vernay. 9. Skulls Unlimited

Video Credits. 1. Life of Birds, Episode 5: Meat Eaters. BBC Natural History Unit, and PBS. 2. Combined clips from the BBC Natural History Unit and PBS Nature episode: Raptor Force.

For centuries, BARNACLEs were thought to be mollusks because of...

Mon, 07 Mar 2011 13:39:00 +0700

For centuries, BARNACLEs were thought to be mollusks because of their apparent possession of a shell. However, scientists in the 19th century discovered that barnacles are actually crustaceans, and that their nearest relatives are not oysters and mussels, as had been suspected, but are actually shrimps, prawns, and lobsters.

Adult barnacles spend their lives stuck to a single spot. On their way to adulthood, however, they swim freely through the ocean. Their journey begins inside the “shell” of an adult, when a mass of fertilized eggs (as many as 10,000) begins to hatch. The larvae that emerge, called nauplius (photo 4), closely resemble their crustaceous cousins, with jointed legs and tell-tale antennae. Nauplii swim out into the sea and spend the next several months feeding on phytoplankton. Once they have reached ~1 millimeter in size (a 10 fold increase) they moult into cyprids (photo 5).

The job of a cyprid is to find a suitable attachment site. Important factors include surface texture, wettability, color, and the presence/absence and composition of any surface biofilm. Many barnacle species also prefer to attach near others of their kind. The mouthparts of a cyprid (along with most of their bodies) are locked away inside a protective carapace. Consequently, they are unable to feed and must attach before the energy reserves they built up as nauplii run out. Fail to do so and they will starve to death. Cyprids attach by excreting a mass of proteinaceous underwater glue through their antennae. They then rotate their bodies so that their limbs are facing upwards and moult into juvenile barnacles. For the rest of their lives they will remain in this position, glued upside down by their heads, lying on their backs with limbs extended.

Shortly after attachment barnacles develop 4-8 interlocking calcareous plates to surround and protect their soft bodies. An additional two apical plates form a sealable opening called an operculum. Together, the barnacle’s plates resist the battering action of waves, provide a humid microclimate at low tide, and reduce exposure to predation. Dwelling continually within these plates, the adult barnacle resumes feeding by extending its modified legs into the water through the operculum. The legs are covered with feathery growths and are used like nets to draw plankton and detritus down into the shell for consumption (VIDEO).

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnacle ,

http://www.fathom.com/feature/121900/index.html ,

http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag//artjan99/barnac.html ,

http://www.mesa.edu.au/friends/seashores/barnacles.html ,

http://www.wildsingapore.com/wildfacts/crustacea/othercrust/ciriipedia/cirripedia.htm ,

http://library.thinkquest.org/J001418/barnacles.html.

Photo Credits. 1. Kevin Lee. 2. Barrie Watts. 3. ? 4 & 5. Wim Van Egmond. 6. adapted from illustrations by Keith Davey .

Video Credits. 1. P. Mieras

NORTH AMERICAN RIVER OTTERS lead very active lives. Staying...

Mon, 21 Feb 2011 12:51:00 +0700

NORTH AMERICAN RIVER OTTERS lead very active lives. Staying warm in cold water requires a lot of energy, and river otters consume and burn a lot of calories. When they aren’t hunting or eating, the’re scampering about, chasing and wrestling conspecifics. River otters are highly social and live in groups with anywhere from 2 to 17 individuals (VIDEO).

River otters are excellent swimmers. Their bodies are streamlined, their feet are fully-webbed, and their tails are long and powerful. They are capable of holding their breath for nearly 4 minutes, diving to depths of 20 meters, and out-maneuvering live fish. A mature river otter typically catches and eats 2-3 pounds of fish every day. Hunting fish is a difficult skill to master, and young otters need several months of practice before they sustain themselves without their mothers help.

River otters are more comfortable in water than they are on land. Their long bodies and short legs are not suited to terrestrial locomotion. They can walk, run, or even bound if necessary, but will always head for water at the first sign of danger. During the winter they spend more time on land, taking advantage of the snow and ice to help them get around (VIDEO).

Otters (Lutrinae) are part of the Mustelid family, the largest group in the order Carnivora. Other mustelids include weasels, badgers, ferrets, martens, polecats, wolverines, and minks. With twelve species in seven genera, otters have almost worldwide distribution. Other species include the African clawless otter, the Oriental small clawed otter, the Eurasian otter, the Indian smooth-coated otter, the Sea otter, and the Giant otter of south America.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_River_Otter ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otter.

Photo Credits. All. Doug Dance

Video Credits 1. National Geographic 2000 2. otterman93.

A grouse of the open grasslands, the GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKEN is...

Mon, 14 Feb 2011 22:30:00 +0700

A grouse of the open grasslands, the GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKEN is best known for its mating behavior. Starting in the spring, male prairie chickens gather to establish and defend their booming grounds, small patches of land where they will advertise themselves to discerning females. Their displays consist of tail-snapping, stutter-stepping, and emitting deep hooting sounds from puffed-out orange sacs on either side of their throats (VIDEO). Females observe for long periods of time before choosing a mate. In general, only the best boomers with the most prominent grounds father offspring, with one or two of the most dominant males doing about 90% of the mating.

Greater prairie chickens spend their lives on the tall grass prairies of the Midwest and Eastern great plains of North America. They do not migrate. A relatively small area of several hundred acres can meet all their needs of food, water, and cover. They are well insulated (even their legs and toes are feathered) and keep warm during severe winters by roosting in the grass under deep snow and out of the wind.

The large, meaty prairie-chicken is a tempting meal for many predators, including red-tailed hawks, owls, skunks, coyotes, opossums, foxes, raccoons, and snakes. It is thought that large clutch sizes (about 12 eggs on average) help to offset high predation rates.

Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes, which also includes other heavily-bodied ground-feeding birds such as turkeys, chickens, quails, ptarmigans, partridges, and pheasants. Several forest-living grouse species (e.g. the spruce grouse) are notable for their ability to eat large quantities of conifer needles, which most other vertebrates refuse. All grouse spend most of their time on the ground, though when alarmed, they may take off in a flurry and go into a long glide.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Prairie_Chicken,

http://www.arkive.org/greater-prairie-chicken/tympanuchus-cupido/#text=Biology,

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/birds/printouts/Prairiechicken.shtml,

http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/prairie/htmls/popups/birds_pchicken.html,

http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Greater_Prairie-Chicken/id.

Photo Credits. 1.Doug Dance. 2. Shane Rucker. 3. Gerrit Vyn. 4. Rebecca Jackrel. 5. Pat Gaines

BROWN BEARs are massively built and heavy bodied animals. They...

Mon, 25 Oct 2010 09:32:00 +0700

BROWN BEARs are massively built and heavy bodied animals. They are most easily distinguished from other bears by the hump-like mass of muscle on their shoulders and their high, steeply rising foreheads. The largest brown bears weigh over 1500 pounds and measure over 9 feet tall (standing upright). Among terrestrial predators, only the polar bear is larger.

Brown bears are found across much of the northern hemisphere. Principal range countries include Russia, Canada, the United States (mostly Alaska), Romania, and Finland. Currently recognized subspecies include the Eurasian brown bear, the Kamchatka brown bear, the East Siberian brown bear, the Grizzly bear, the Himalayan brown bear, the Ussuri brown bear, the Kodiak bear, the Tibetan blue bear, and the Syrian brown bear.

Brown bears are omnivores. They feed opportunistically on whatever is easy and available. Grizzlies in Yellowstone, for example, get up to half of their annual food energy by eating moth larvae they find under loose stones. A pregnant female must gain up to 400lb in fat reserves to survive the upcoming winter while providing milk for nursing cubs. Meeting this requirement can make them predatory, particularly as winter draws near. Brown bears will hunt and kill a variety of animals, including fish, squirrels, deer, moose, elk, caribou, bighorn sheep, mountain goats, bison, and muskoxen, as well as the occasional hiker. They also using their size to steal the kills of other predators, such as wolves, cougars, tigers, and black bears.

This fight (VIDEO) between a fading alpha male and an emerging competitor was filmed on the Katmai Coast of Alaska. It is so intense that half way through the alpha defecates from exertion.

Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Bear

Photo Credits. 1. From National Audubon Society Field Guide to North America Mammals by John O. Whitaker. 1996. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 2. Superimposed image: Charles Darwin’s head on John Muir’s body, scaled to 5’11” assuming the bear is 8’6”.

Video Credit. Timothy Treadwell.

At just over one meter long and weighing between 50 and 80 lbs...

Mon, 11 Oct 2010 23:00:00 +0700

At just over one meter long and weighing between 50 and 80 lbs the WOMBAT holds the distinction of being the world’s largest burrowing animal. Stocky, barrel-shaped bodies with short powerful limbs and broad shovel-like feet with long claws make them excellent diggers, capable of excavating burrows over 100 feet long and 12 feet deep. The three species of wombat belong to their own family, Vombatidae. Their closest living relative is the koala.

Wombats are grazers, feeding primarily on grasses and roots. Unlike other animals with similarly nutrient poor diets, wombats do not spend most of their time eating. This is made possible by extremely low metabolic rates, and largely dormant lifestyles. Wombats spend about 3/4 of their time resting in underground burrows. These qualities greatly reduce their need for food and water; a similarly-sized sheep eats and drinks over 3x as much. Typically they emerge in the evening when its cool and continue grazing into the night. When above ground wombats generally move slowly with a slightly awkward gait (VIDEO).

Wombats are preyed upon by dingos, Tasmanian devils, and prior to their extinction in the early 20th century, also marsupial wolves. When attacked the wombat dives into a nearby burrow, which is only wide enough for a single wombat. Predators that try to follow encounter the wombat’s unyielding rear end, which it uses as a plug to block further advances. The wombat’s backside is covered by a very thick hide toughened with cartilage, and their tails are almost nonexistent. This makes it difficult for any predator that follows a wombat into a burrow to bite or injure its target. Persistent predators are met with powerful two-legged donkey kicks to the face; the wombat may also allow the pursuer to try and squeeze by over their backs, waiting for the right moment and then using their powerful legs to crush them into the roof of the tunnel. These are deadly behaviors as they can cause irreparable skull damage and/or suffocation.

In contrast to placental mammals (like us), marsupials have an extremely short gestation period (only 4-5 weeks). Infants are born basically in a fetal state: blind, furless, and about the size of a jelly bean. After emerging, they crawl through their mothers fur to a pouch where they remain, feeding on milk, until more fully developed (VIDEO). Other characteristic marsupial traits include the lack of bony kneecaps, and the absence of gross communication between their left and right cerebral hemispheres (i.e. no corpus callosum).

Sources. http://www.wombania.com/wombats ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wombat,

http://animal.discovery.com/mammals/wombat ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsupial,

http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/reproduction.html.

Photo Credits. 1. ? 2. Leo Laporte 3. www.autrailian-wildlife.com.

Video Credits. 1. ech1dna 2. BBC Natural History Unit

The SLOW LORIS is an elusive nocturnal primate found in the...

Tue, 21 Sep 2010 23:25:00 +0700

The SLOW LORIS is an elusive nocturnal primate found in the tropical jungles of Southeast Asia. Named for their slow and methodical movements, their metabolic rates are about 40% slower than expected based on body size. They range from 5-15 inches in length and typically weigh between 600-1000 grams.

Despite their plodding nature, slow lorises are effective climbers (VIDEO). They have very good grip with their hands and with their feet. The first digit of each appendage is highly opposed and specialized blood vessels in their wrists and ankles help prevent muscle cramps, allowing them to maintain a firm grip for long periods of time.

A typical day is spent sleeping curled into a tight ball high up a tree. At night, they wake and go in search of food. The slow loris diet is about half animal and half vegetable. Given the opportunity they will hunt and eat meat, but when meat is unavailable they eat fruit, young leaves, and tree gum. Animal prey includes insects, snails, lizards, and the occasional small bird. Once prey is spotted, the slow loris creeps silently to within striking distance and then quickly snatches them. Fragile prey are crushed by their grip or torn apart; tougher prey are put straight into the mouth and killed with a quick chew of the head. Once the threat of escape is dealt with, slow lorises take their time, gradually biting off chunks and slowly chewing and swallowing them. (a related species, the gray slender loris, hunts and eats insects VIDEO, and a lizard VIDEO).

Slow Lorises deter predators with allergenic saliva and the threat of painful bites. Sweat-gland-like tissue on the inside of their elbows secretes an irritating protein similar to the allergen in cat dander. Lorises take this protein into their mouths and deliver it in their bites: powerful jaw muscles and sharp canines pierce the skin while smaller forward-sloping teeth conduct saliva into the wound. The saliva causes considerable irritation and in some cases bacterial infection. Mother lorises lick their saliva all over their babies before parking them in the nest to go off in search of food.

Primates are traditionally divided into two groups,s those with wet noses (the Strepsirrhini), and those with dry noses (the Haplorrhini). The wet-noses are so named because their noses (which are moist) are connected to their upper lip which is in turn connected to their gums. This dog-like arrangement constrains the expressivity of the face. In dry-noses, the nose, upper lip, and gums are all separated, allowing for a greater range of facial expression. Other wet-nose characteristics include smaller brain-to-body ratios, larger olfactory bulbs (a brain region involved in smell), and elongated snouts. Dry-noses typically have larger brain-to-body ratios, more differentiated hands and feet, and more sophisticated visual systems. The wet-noses are the lemurs and their relations (98 species total), and the lorises and their relations (28). The dry-noses are the tarsiers (9), new world monkeys (139), old world monkeys (135), gibbons (13), and our group, the great apes (7).

Although our last common ancestor with the slow loris is thought to have lived some 60 million years ago, their dextrous hands are a powerful reminder of our close relation with them.

Sources. http://www.kingsnake.com/toxinology/loris/slow_loris.html ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_loris ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate ,

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jul/06/loris-illegal-animal-trade-indonesia ,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/330.shtml.

Photo Credits. 1. Andrew Zuckerman 2. ? 3. ? 4. BBC Natural History Unit.

Video Credits. 1. BBC Natural History Unit. 2. BBC Natural History Unit. 3. BBC Natural History Unit.

Extant CEPHALOPODS are divided into two groups, those where the...

Sat, 28 Aug 2010 13:39:00 +0700

Extant CEPHALOPODS are divided into two groups, those where the mollusk shell remains (the nautiluses) and those where it has been internalized or is absent (the squid, cuttlefish, and octopuses). Those in the latter group are attractive prey items for a wide variety of predators including sharks, dolphins, sperm whales, eels, and sea turtles. Perhaps as a consequence of this palatability, unshelled cephalopods exhibit some of the most impressive defensive behaviors in the animal kingdom, some of which are considered below.

Camouflage. Cephalopod camouflage is generated by various combinations of postural, textural and chromatic elements. In most species, the chromatic elements dominate. Thousands to millions of chromatophore organs distributed throughout the dermis of each animal can be manipulated to produce a wide range of colors Each chromatophore is a tiny pigment-containing sack attached to radially emanating muscle fibers. When these fibers are relaxed the sack is bound up tightly into a little ball so as to be invisible; when they contract, the ball is pulled out into a flat disc of color (VIDEO). Chromatophores are arranged in layers. Yellows, reds, and browns on top, with those that reflect and diffract to produce iridescent blues, greens, reds, pinks, and whites below. In some species chromatic camouflage is enhanced by textural patterning made possible by additional skin muscles. Various octopus and cuttlefish, for example, frequently take on the appearance of scraggly seaweed or spiky coral (VIDEO). Direct neural innervation of the muscle fibers that generate color and texture changes allows for complex patterning in a matter of milliseconds.

Bioluminescense. Many cephalopods are capable of producing their own light. Deep-sea species typically do this by oxidizing photopigments in specialized cells called photophores, whereas surface dwellers tend to rely on symbiotic phosphorescing bacteria they acquire from surrounding seawater. Some species of squid make light for protection, matching ambient conditions on their undersides to blur their outlines and nullify their shadows. Other species use light to confusion potential agressors (VIDEO).

Inking. All unshelled cephalopods can expel dark clouds of melanin-based ink from muscular sacs near the anus. At least two distinct inking behaviors have been observed. The first is the release of large amounts of ink to create a diffuse cloud, obscuring a predator’s view and possibly causing chemosensory impairment. The second is the release of ink pseudomorphs, smaller clouds with greater mucus content that hold their shape. These are roughly the same size and shape as the releasing cephalopod and predators are often confused into attacking them instead of their rapidly departing prey. Ink pseudomorphs are frequently expelled in tandem with a quick color change (blanching) to generate further confusion, and followed by rapid jet propulsion to escape. (VIDEO).

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopod,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopus ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuttlefish ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid ,

PBS NOVA, Kings of Camouflage ,

Gaston M.R. and Tublitz N.J. 2004 ,

http://www.stritch.luc.edu/node/586 ,

http://everything2.com/title/Bioluminescence+in+Cephalopods ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopod_ink.

Photo Credits. 1. Nhobgood. 2. Mattias Ormestad. 3. Bob Cranston. 4. ? 5. ? 6. Leslie Chan. 7. Joshua Lambus.

Video Credits. 1. Roy L Caldwell 2. Roger Hanlon. 3. BBC Natural History Unit. 4. The Ultimate Guide: Octopus (directed by Emma Peddie)

Little black, Fire, Army, Big head, Weaver, Yellow crazy, Leaf...

Sun, 08 Aug 2010 15:05:00 +0700

Little black, Fire, Army, Big head, Weaver, Yellow crazy, Leaf cutter, Slave maker, Bulldog, Jack jumper, Lemon, Gold bum, Trap-jaw, Bullet, Meat, Pharaoh, Metallic pony, Gliding… The ANT family (Formicidae) is estimated to include 22000 species. They are distinguished from other insects by having elbowed antennae, a stem-like constriction connecting their middle and rear segments, and glands that produce and secrete antibiotics onto their exoskeleton (helping to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungal spores, and pollen grains). Phylogenetic analysis suggests that they evolved from a wasp-like ancestor between 110 to 130 million years ago.

Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches, and are able to exploit a variety of food resources either as herbivores, predators, and scavengers. They are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia, and the Hawaiian Islands lack native species. Biologists estimate that there are between 10 to 100 quadrillion of them living on earth at any given time. Their success in so many different environments has been attributed to their social organization and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves.

Ant social behavior is coordinated by chemical communication. Compounds called pheromones are produced and secreted by glands located throughout their bodies and detected with their long, thin, mobile antennae. Food-trail pheromones are critical to foraging behavior. When a forager finds food it lays down a chemical trail on its way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, who then reinforce the trail when they head back to the colony with food. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates (VIDEO).

Another example of chemical communication are the pheromones released by dead ants. In some species, when an ant dies its corpse releases compounds that signal nest-mates to dispose of it, thus maintaining the hygiene of the colony. If these compounds are dabbed onto a living ant, it will be picked up and dragged alive and kicking to the refuse pile. Subsequent attempts to re-enter the colony will fail until the marked ant has thoroughly cleaned itself.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant ,

http://openflv.com/watch?v=MTIxMzMy&p=0 ,

http://blogs.wnyc.org/radiolab/2008/09/23/chasing-bugs/.

Photo and Electron Micrograph Credits. 1. ? 2. Robert Sisson. 3. ? 4. ? 5. ? 6. Louisa Howard. 7. ? 8. ?

STARFISH are echinoderms, a massive phylum of marine...

Tue, 27 Jul 2010 19:33:00 +0700

STARFISH are echinoderms, a massive phylum of marine invertebrates which also includes sea urchins, sand dollars, crinoids, and sea cucumbers. The over 2000 starfish species exhibit a wide diversity of colors, shapes, and sizes. The basic body plan typically consists of five arms which radiate from a central disc, however other numbers of arms are common and some species may have as many as 50.

Echinoderms use a water vascular system to move. Water is pumped in through a central intake valve and used to pressurize numerous hollow projections called tube feet. These extend out the organism’s bottom surface and use suction and chemical adhesion to latch onto substrates and food items. Wave-like motion of the tube feet, with those in one body section attaching to a surface and pulling as those in another section release, generates locomotion (albeit at very slow speeds). During feeding, the tube feet are also used to pull prey towards the mouth (located centrally on the bottom surface), and to force open shells.

Starfish display a wide variety of feeding behaviors but are primarily opportunistic carnivores, feeding on any animal too slow to evade their attack. Many starfish species possess the ability to evert their stomach outside of their body to envelop prey and start digesting them externally (VIDEO). This ability comes in handy when dealing with shell-bound prey as the stomach can be injected into the shell through the gap opened by the tube feet. Because starfish can start digesting prey outside of their bodies, they can hunt organisms much larger than their mouths would otherwise allow.

Starfish possess a number of surface receptor cells which detect chemicals, temperature, light, dark, and movement - combined with the water vascular system and a network of interlacing nerve cells these allow starfish to coordinate their behavior in response to the environment.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfish ,

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Starfish

Photo Credits. 1. James Forte. 2. ? 3. ? 4. Walcott Henry. 5. George Grall

Video Credits. yajonbondy

Eagles are distinguished from other birds of prey by their...

Sun, 11 Jul 2010 05:23:00 +0700

Eagles are distinguished from other birds of prey by their larger size, more powerful build, and heavier head and beak. They sit on top of the food chain and have few enemies. Most of the more than 60 species of eagle occur in Eurasia and Africa. Only two species reside in North America, the Bald eagle and the Golden eagle. Bald eagles feed primarily on fish and thus prefer to live near water. Golden eagles feed primarily on small mammals and are thus not restricted to water based habitats.

Exceptionally keen vision allows the BALD EAGLE to spot a fish in the water while gliding several hundred feet above the surface. This feat is even more impressive given the fact that most fish are counter-shaded (i.e. darker on top and thus harder to see from above). In fact, young bald eagles often make mistakes, attacking objects like pieces of driftwood or plastic bottles floating just below the surface.

Once a target is located, the bald eagle approaches from a shallow glide and snatches it out of the water with a quick swipe of its powerful talons (VIDEO). The gripping power of the talons (upwards of 400 pounds per square inch) arises from strong muscles in the eagle’s legs; the talons penetrate flesh and deal death blows.

Back on dry land, the bald eagle uses its powerful beak to dispatch its prey. The hooked tip is ideal for tearing off strips of flesh, and the sharp upper and lower mandibles overlap when closed, functioning like a pair of scissors. The talons and beak are made of keratin (like fingernails) and grow continuously - they are warn down by activity.

Occasionally bald eagles will attack a fish that is too large to lift into the air (over ~5 lbs). In these situations a well-fed bird is likely to let go, but a desperately hungry bird will often hold on and allow themselves to be dragged through the water in hopes that the fish will succumb. Eagles cannot take to the air from the water, so if a fish is captured in this way the eagle must swim with it to shore. Bald eagles are reasonably strong swimmers (they use their wings to move through the water), but if the shore is too far or the water is too cold, they will drown.

Sources. http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/ ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle ,

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/bald-eagle.html.

Photo Credits. 1. Michael Melford 5. Dean Bertoncelj 6. Janine Niebrugge.

Video Credits. Nature’s Great Events E2. The Great Salmon Run. BBC Natural History Unit 2009

Sockeye, Coastal cutthroat, Chum, Chinook, Coho, Steelhead and...

Mon, 28 Jun 2010 20:51:00 +0700

Sockeye, Coastal cutthroat, Chum, Chinook, Coho, Steelhead and Pink. Every year hundreds of millions of pacific salmon travel from the ocean to the mountain streams from which they came in order to create the next generation. Exactly how they find their way back to the exact patch of gravel where they were born is not understood, although their keen sense of smell is thought to be involved.

Although the body of a salmon is solid muscle and perfectly streamlined, battling cascading water for distances over 1000 miles (all upstream), and climbs over 7000 ft seems absurdly difficult. But Salmon have skills. Like a sailboat tacks into the wind, salmon use the energy of swift turbulent water to hold their position and even propel themselves forward. They are often seen making progress through rapids scarcely beating their tails.

Should they encounter a waterfall however, this technique will no longer do. To clear waterfalls Salmon must launch themselves into the air. The highest recorded jump is 12 feet. Sometimes it will take a salmon a whole day of trying to jump a waterfall before it is successful. (VIDEO).

Salmon begin life in freshwater and stay in their natal stream for anywhere from six months to three years. During this time they feed primarily on insects and amphipods. As they make they way down stream to the ocean they spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. Depending on the species, salmon spend about one to five years in the open ocean before returning to the mountains to spawn. After spawning they die and in doing so provide a massive donation of nutrients to bears, wolves, eagles, and even the forest itself, as salmon carcasses left at the feet of trees by satiated animals lead to recorded growth spurts.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon.

Photo Credits. 1. Peter Essick

Video Credits. Nature’s Great Events, E02. The Great Salmon Run. BBC Natural History Unit

Despite their gentle appearance, VELVET WORMs are deadly...

Thu, 17 Jun 2010 22:47:00 +0700

Despite their gentle appearance, VELVET WORMs are deadly predators. They hunt by night, waiting in darkness and monitoring the air for disturbances formed by nearby passing insects. Potential prey are slowly approached for further inspection with smooth, fluid movements that go unnoticed. Once within touching distance, the velvet worm softly evaluates its target with its antennae, assessing size and nutritional value. After each stroke, the antenna are hastily retracted to avoid detection.

If the decision to attack is made, the velvet worm forcefully ejects slime from a pair of glands positioned on the sides of the head. One squirt is usually enough to entangle the prey so that it can’t escape, although larger prey may be further immobilized by additional squirts targeted at the limbs (potentially dangerous prey may receive additional squirts to neutralize their biting or stinging parts). The slime is viscous and forms a net of thread-like strings that adhere and contract. Once their prey is immobilized, the velvet worm finds a soft part, punctures with its jaws, and injects saliva which kills and begins digestion of the innards. While waiting for its saliva to take action, the velvet worm salivates on its slime and eats it for later reuse. (VIDEO)

Although the velvet worms share traits with both annelids (worms) and arthropods (insects, crustaceans, spiders, etc.), they belong to a phylum all their own. Their soft bodies resemble those of worms but unlike any annelid, they have between 14-43 pairs of leg-like appendages, much like the false legs of a caterpillar. However, unlike caterpillars, or any other arthropod for that matter, velvet worms lack a chitinous exoskeleton.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychophora ,

http://australianmuseum.net.au/Velvet-worm ,

http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/animals1/phylum/velvetworm.html.

Photo Credits. 2. Neil Fitzgerald. 3. Paddy Ryan. 4. Maria Minor & Alistair Robertson

Video Credits. Life in the Undergrowth, Episode 1. Invasion of the land. 2005. BBC Natural History Unit.

SEAHORSEis a genus of highly modified fish containing about 35...

Sun, 13 Jun 2010 22:42:00 +0700

SEAHORSEis a genus of highly modified fish containing about 35 species. They are unusual for many reasons.

Seahorses do not have scales, but rather a thin skin stretched over a series of bony plates arranged in rings throughout their bodies. Seahorses swim upright, using a rapidly fluttering small fin on their backs for propulsion and two smaller fins located near the back of their heads for steering. They swim poorly and can easily die of exhaustion when caught in stormy seas. For this reason they spend most of their time resting, anchored to a vegetation or coral by their prehensile tails. The male seahorse has a brood pouch. During mating, the female seahorse deposits the eggs in the male’s pouch, which he then fertilizes internally. After fertilization the male carries the developing brood to term, when he expels fully-developed miniature seahorses into the sea.

Seahorses prefer sheltered habitats, bobbing around in sea grass meadows, mangrove stands, and coral reefs adopting murky brown and grey patterns to camouflage themselves. Indeed, seahorses are masters of camouflage, able to change colors and grow protuberances to mimic their surrounding (Pictures 4,5. Pygmy Seahorse. Picture 6. Leafy Sea Dragon).

Seahorses are thought to have evolved from pipefish in response to tectonic events that created large areas of shallow-water, allowing the expansion of seagrass habitats which selected for the camouflage offered by the seahorses’ upright posture.

Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahorse ,

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/sea-horse/.

Photo Credits. 1,7. Laurent Ballesta. 2. Owen Buhagiar. 4. Ken Lech.